| Sr. No. | Type | Chapter Name | Module Name | Exam Name | Description | IP | Edit |
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| 1 | Notes | Difference Between “i.e.” And “e.g.”? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | I.e. and e.g. are two different abbreviations that many writers get confused, but, once you understand what each abbreviation means, they aren’t difficult to manage at all.
The abbreviation i.e. stands for id est, which is Latin for that is. This phrase is used to restate something in a different way. You can think of it as meaning in other words, to help you remember its function.
The abbreviation e.g. stands for exempli gratia, which means for example in Latin. This abbreviation is used to introduce one or more specific examples of a broader category.
Here is an example using i.e.
“I like citrus fruits, i.e., the juicy, edible fruits with leathery, aromatic rinds.”
In this example, i.e. introduces an elaboration on citrus fruits.
Here is an example using e.g.
“I like citrus fruits, e.g., tangerines, lemons, and limes.”
In this example, e.g. introduces examples of citrus fruits.
One easy way to remember the difference between these two abbreviations is by employing a simple mnemonic device: Think of the i at the beginning of i.e. as a stand in for the first word in the phrase “in other words.”
This indicates that the clause that follows will rephrase or explain the first part of the sentence.
E.g. is a little more straightforward since e stands for exempli meaning “example.”
And, remember that in formal writing, e.g. and i.e. are often set off in parentheses and followed by a comma; in less formal writing, it is standard to place a comma before and after these terms. | 103.132.149.188 | |
| 2 | Notes | Uses of Can and Could | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Can expresses ability. Cannot (can’t) shows inability.
She can speak ten languages.
I can’t cook.
Can you speak Spanish?
Sometimes can is used in the sense of may to give permission.
You can go.OR You may go.
You can take one of these shirts.OR You may take one of these shirts.
Nowadays can is also increasingly used to ask permission.
Can I go? OR May I go?
Could
Could is the past tense of can. It is used to talk about abilities that existed in the past.
In my younger days, I could run four miles at a stretch.
Till last year I could read without glasses.
Note that could doesn’t always refer to past time. It refers to past time only when the context makes the time clear.
Indirect speech
Could is the past tense of can in indirect speech.
He said, ‘ I can lift this box.’
He said that he could lift that box.
She said, ‘I can’t see anything.’
She said that she couldn’t see anything.
Possibility or uncertainty
Could express possibility or uncertainty.
You could do it if you tried hard.
If my brother were here, we could have solved this problem together.
Could it also be used to ask polite questions?
Could you, please, take me to the Manager?
Could I have a look at your papers?
Notes
Can and could are followed by infinitives without to.
I can knit. (NOT I can to knit.)
She could understand nothing. (NOT She could to understand nothing.)
Questions and negatives are made without do.
Can he speak English? (NOT Does he can speak English?)
He can’t speak English. (NOT He can doesn’t speak English.)
There is no -s in the third person singular.
She can sing. (NOT She can sings.)
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| 3 | Notes | Use the right past form of verbs | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Speaking about the past in English is not particularly difficult. Every subject uses the same word to express the past, so you don’t have to worry about learning six different words as in some languages. However, many verbs are irregular and don’t follow the regular form of adding -ed. You don’t need to know all of these, but try to learn the most common ones (approximately 20).
For example,
Go – went
Have – had
Make – made
For example,
We went to the cinema last Saturday.
They had a party to celebrate Tom’s birthday.
I made a cake this morning.
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| 4 | Notes | Modal Verbs | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs (also known as "helping verbs"). Normally modal verbs cannot work alone and must work with a main verb. The so-called "semi-modals" work partly like modals and partly like main verbs.
Modals:
can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might
must, ought (to)
can, could, be able to
can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is not an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.
have to, must
must is a modal auxiliary verb. Have to is not an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.
shall versus will
People sometimes say that there is no difference between shall and will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as Shall I call a taxi?). They say the same thing about should, but it's not really true.
would
We use the modal auxiliary verb would mainly to talk about the past, talk about the future in the past and express the conditional mood.
should
We use the modal auxiliary verb should mainly to give advice or make recommendations, talk about obligation or talk about probability and expectation.
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| 5 | Notes | Difference between "Each" and "Every" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | | 103.94.57.27 | |
| 6 | Notes | Uses of May, Might | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Formal Permission / Formal Prohibition
may / may not base form of the verb
You may start your exam now.
You may not wear sandals to work.
Polite Request
May subject base form of the verb
May I help you?
Possibility / Negative Possibility
may/ might base form of the verb
We may go out for dinner tonight. Do you want to join us?
Our company might get the order if the client agrees to the price.
may not / might not base form of the verb
Adam and Sue may not buy that house. It’s very expensive.
They might not buy a house at all.
To Make a Suggestion (when there is no better alternative)
may as well / might as well base form of the verb
You may as well come inside. John will be home soon.
We might as well take Friday off. There’s no work to be done anyway.
Polite Suggestion
might base form of the verb
You might like to try the salmon fillet. It’s our special today.
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| 7 | Notes | Shall, Should, Ought to | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | To Offer of Assistance or Polite Suggestion (When you are quite sure of a positive answer)
Shall subject base form of the verb
Shall we go for a walk?
Note: Shall is only used with I or we. It is used instead of will only informal English.
To Offer of Assistance or Polite Suggestion (When you are not sure of a positive answer)
Should subject base form of the verb
Should I call a doctor?
A Prediction or Expectation that Something Will Happen
should/shouldn’t base form of the verb
The proposal should be finished on time.
I shouldn’t be late. The train usually arrives on time.
To Give Advice
should / ought to base form of the verb
You should check that document before you send it out.
You ought to have your car serviced before the winter.
To Give Advice (about something you think wrong or unacceptable)
shouldn’t base form of the verb
James shouldn’t teach him words like those.
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| 8 | Notes | Uses of Will / Would | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | will / won’t base form of the verb
John will pick you up at 7:00 am.
Beth won’t be happy with the results of the exam.
Polite Request or Statement
Will / Would base form of the verb
Will you please take the trash out?
Would you mind if I sat here?
I’d (I would) like to sign up for your workshop.
Habitual Past Action
Would/Wouldn’t base form of the verb
When I was a child, I would spend hours playing with my train set.
Peter wouldn’t eat broccoli when he was a kid. He loves it now.
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| 9 | Notes | USING A OR AN DEPENDS ON THE SOUND THAT BEGINS THE NEXT WORD. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | 1. a singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
2. an singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
3. a singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle
4. an nouns starting with silent "h": an hour
5. a nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse
In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred.
A historical event is worth recording.
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| 10 | Notes | Both and Not | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | | 103.94.57.27 | |
| 11 | Notes | Pay attention to homophones | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Homophonic words are words that are pronounced in the same way as other words but have different meanings, even if they are spelled differently. This can obviously create confusion and unfortunately, there are many of these words in English.
For example:
they’re – their – there
you’re – your
it’s – its
I – eye
here – hear
break – brake
flower – flour
our – hour
So when you’re writing, be careful to choose the right spelling. And when you listen, remember that a word you think you understood may have another meaning. Try to understand that meaning from the context.
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| 12 | Notes | Adjectives and adverbs | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Make sure you use adjectives and adverbs correctly.
Adjectives describe, identify and quantify people or things and usually go in front of a noun. They don’t change if the noun is plural. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and usually come after the verb.
For example:
He’s a slow driver. (adjective)
He drives slowly. (adverb)
Most adverbs are created by adding -ly to an adjective as in the example, but a few adverbs are irregular, such as:
fast (adjective) – fast (adverb)
hard (adjective) – hard (adverb)
good (adjective) – well (adverb)
For example
Your English is good. (adjective)
You speak English well. (adverb)
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| 13 | Notes | Sentence construction | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Generally speaking, sentences in written English are not particularly long. This is good news for English learners because it means you don’t need to worry about writing long, complex sentences. A sentence usually has two, or possibly three, clauses (subject verb object), linked by a conjunction (see above).
A good way to make your sentences even clearer is to add commas. Commas help the reader understand where one phrase finishes and another begins. The most common occasions where it’s recommended to put a comma are:
between two clauses.
For example, If the weather is nice tomorrow, we’re going to the park.
to separate items in a list.
For example, Our kids like swimming, skiing, ice-skating and cycling.
after some conjunctions.
For example, Our holiday was great and the hotel was wonderful. However, the weather was awful.
for extra information in the middle of a sentence (a non-defining clause).
For example, My neighbor, who’s from Brazil, is really good at cooking.
And don’t forget to start every sentence with a capital letter!
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| 14 | Notes | Get familiar with the main English verb tenses | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | If you’re just starting to learn English, you won’t know all the tenses yet. And that’s fine. Just focus on becoming familiar with the four or five that are used most often. Aim to be able to use these:
Present simple – to describe habits and permanent situations.
For example, We live in New York.
Present continuous – to describe current situations and future plans.
For example, I’m meeting John later.
Past simple – to describe finished past actions.
For example, They arrived at 3 p.m.
Present perfect – to describe past actions connected to now.
For example, We’ve finished the reports.
Will – to describe future actions.
For example, I’ll meet you in front of the conference center.
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| 15 | Notes | Difference Between That and Who | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The difference between That and Who are:
1. “That” is a relative pronoun that is used when referring to either a person or a thing while “who” is a relative pronoun that is used when referring to a person.
For example:
I have a friend who can help in this matter.
John has a master key that can open this lock.
2. The word “that” is also used as a demonstrative pronoun, adjective, conjunction, or adverb while the word “who” is also used as a subject or object of a verb and is usually used after a comma.
3. The words “that” and “who” can be used in place of each other, but “who” is used if the antecedent is a person while “that” is used if the antecedent is either a thing or a person.
4. That and who allow joining of two phrases of a sentence that otherwise remain separate.
For example:
1. This is John. He is Jane’s brother.
This is John who is Jane’s brother.
“This is John” is the main clause and “who is Jane’s brother” is the relative clause.
2. This is my pet. I love my pet so much.
This is my pet that I love so much.
''This is my pet'' (main clause) and ''that I love so much'' (relative clause).
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| 16 | Notes | Difference Between Much and Many | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The difference between much and many are discussed in the points given below:
1. ‘Much’ should be appropriately used with uncountable nouns, while ‘Many’ should be used with countable nouns.
2. ‘Much’ is most likely used with singular nouns, while ‘Many’ is used with plurals.
3. ‘Much’ is awkward in affirmative sentences, if not preceded by ‘so’, ‘too’, or ‘as’, while ‘Many’ can be used extensively in affirmative sentences.
4. Example:
We have been to America, many years ago.
We have much time to visit America.
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| 17 | Notes | Grammar Rules based on Noun | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | RULE 1
The hyphenated noun does not have a plural form.
Example –
He gave me five hundred – rupees notes. ❌
He gave me five hundred – rupee notes.✔️
Sumit stays in five – stars hotels. ❌
Sumit stays in five–star hotels. ✔️
RULE 2
Nouns expressing numbers are used in the singular form with numeral adjectives.
Example –
Sheetal gave me five dozens pens. ❌
Sheetal gave me five dozen pens. ✔️
Two lakhs people attended the ceremony. ❌
Two lakh people attended the ceremony. ✔️
Lakhs of people attended the ceremony.✔️ (no numeral adjective)
RULE 3
The collective nouns like committee, jury, house, ministry, police, mob, audience, team, the board are used with singular verbs when they are used as a body or a group and not as members. When they are used as members then they take a plural verb.
( Tip – when a group is considered as a single unit, it takes a singular verb and singular pronoun, and when it’s considered plural, it takes a plural verb.)
Example –
The police has become insensitive. ✔️
The police was posted all over the route.❌
The police were posted all over the route. ✔️
The committee have approved an expenditure of fifty crores.❌
The committee has approved an expenditure of fifty crores. ✔️
RULE 4
If a preposition connects two similar nouns, the noun is used in singular form and takes a singular verb.
Example –
Villages after villages was visited during the last election. ❌
Villages after villages were visited during the last election. ❌
Village after village was visited during the last election. ✔️
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| 18 | Notes | Uses of a few and a little | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Rule
1. "a few" and "a little" are determiners and they both mean a small quantity of something.
2. Little refers to non-countable nouns and is used with the singular form to indicate that something exists only in a small amount or to a slight degree. Few refer to countable nouns and are used with the plural form to indicate not many persons or things.
3. We use "a few" only with countable nouns like "lemon".
Example: "There are a few lemons."
4. We use "a little" only with uncountable nouns like "milk".
Example: "There is a little water."
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| 19 | Notes | The Difference Between Few and a Few | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use the word few when we want to talk about the quantity of something. Usually, we use it when we want to talk about a small quantity
For example, Few members of the family leave their hometown each year.
In the sentence above, we used few to indicate that only one or two members of the family leave town most of them stay put. However, if we were to add “a” to few, we would be saying something else:
For example, A few members of the family leave their hometown each year.
Here we’re saying that some members of the family leave their hometown. It’s still not a lot of them, but the emphasis is on the fact on that there are some who do leave, and not that their number is small. Here’s another example:
For examples:
1. I have many friends; I’ve known few of them since high school.
2. I have many friends; I’ve known a few of them since high school.
In the first sentence, we are saying that, although we have a lot of friends, we haven’t known them for very long there’s only a small number of them we’ve known since high school. In the second sentence, we are saying that we have many friends and some of them are really old friends we’ve known since high school.
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| 20 | Notes | What is the difference between was and were? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | “Was” is the past tense of “is” while “were” is the past tense of “are.” The verb “was” is generally used for singular and uncountable subjects, both nouns and pronouns. On the contrary, the verb “were” is used when the subject is plural.
Additionally, the verb “were” should be used with the pronoun “I” if it is used in a subjunctive mood, or if the statement talks about something that is not real or just hypothetical. “I” should be paired with “was” if the statement talks about a fact.
For example:
1. The test was really easy!
2. I’d be a model if I were taller! (hypothetical statement).
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| 21 | Notes | What is the difference between people and person? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | `People'
People is a plural noun. You use a plural form of a verb after it.
People are most commonly used to refer to a particular group of men and women, or a particular group of men, women, and children.
For example:
The people at my work mostly wear suits.
Two hundred people were killed in the fire.
You often use people to refer to all the men, women, and children of a particular country, tribe, or race.
Ex: The British people elect a new government every four or five years.
`Peoples'
When you are referring to several countries, tribes, or races, you can use the plural form peoples.
Ex: They all belong to the ancient group of Indo-European peoples.
Another use of `People'
People can also be used to say that something is generally done.
For example:
I don't think people should drive so fast.
She always tried to help people.
`Person'
A person is a countable noun. A person is an individual man, woman, or child.
For example:
There was far too much food for one person.
Chen is a good person to ask if you have a computer problem.
The usual plural of `person' is people, but in formal English persons is sometimes used.
Ex: No unauthorized persons may enter the building.
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| 22 | Notes | Difference between arise and rise? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Arise means ‘happen’ or ‘occur’. We use it with abstract nouns (e.g. problem). The three forms of arise are arise, arose, arisen. It is used in formal contexts.
For example:
An opportunity arose and he decided to take the job in Brussels.
A problem has arisen with my passport.
Rise means ‘go up’. The three forms of rise are rise, rose, risen.
For example:
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Food prices have risen a lot in the last few months.
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| 23 | Notes | What are the differences between advise and advice? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | As they have similar spellings and related meanings, advise and advice are often confused in speech and writing. In fact, advice and advise are both used in the same context and situations, i.e. when offering an opinion or counsel. But, grammatically, the use of advise and advice is very different, so it’s important to know the difference.
The word advice is a noun. It means an opinion or recommendation that is offered as a course of action. Advice is pronounced with an ending sounding like "ice."
For Example:
She promised to follow his advice.
He knows nothing about fashion, I never ask for his advice.
The word advise is used as a verb. It means to offer an opinion or suggestion, or formally provide information. Advise is pronounced with an ending sounding like "ize."
For Example:
He advised her to see a doctor.
If you ask, the boss will advise you on the best way to get it done.
Note: “Advice” and “Advise” are homophones (words that sound alike), they are often confused.
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| 24 | Notes | What is the difference between beside and besides? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | "Beside" and "besides" sound similar, but their meanings are quite different.
Beside, with no “s” at the end, is used only as a preposition, which means there is always a noun following it. It means either “next to” or “compared to,” as shown in the examples below. The first meaning, “next to,” is more common.
For example:
1. She sat beside (= next to) him during dinner.
2. These problems seem unimportant beside (= compared to) the potential benefits of the new system.
Besides with an “s” at the end can also be used as a preposition, but it means “except” or “in addition to.”
For examples:
1. There's no one here besides (= except) me.
2. She wants to learn other languages besides (= in addition to) English and French.
However, besides can also be used as an adverb, to introduce additional information. As you can see in the examples below, besides can be placed either before the additional information or after it. When it’s placed before the new information, a comma should be inserted after it.
For example:
They serve pasta and many other foods besides. (besides comes after the new information: “and many other foods”)
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| 25 | Notes | Difference between arise or rise? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Arise means ‘happen’ or ‘occur’. We use it with abstract nouns (e.g. problem). The three forms of arise are arise, arose, arisen. It is used in formal contexts:
For example:
1. An opportunity arose and he decided to take the job in Brussels.
2. A problem has arisen with my passport.
Rise means ‘go up’. The three forms of rise are rise, rose, risen:
For example:
1. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
2. Food prices have risen a lot in the last few months.
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| 26 | Notes | Terrified and Petrified | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Terrified is a past-tense verb that refers to getting frightened or menaced, or being in a state of intense fear.
Example:
She is terrified of her boss.
Petrified is also a past-tense verb, but it usually indicates the loss of movement or being stunned due to fear.
Example:
She is petrified by the sight of blood filling up the bathtub.
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| 27 | Notes | Transitive or Intransitive? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | A transitive verb is one that is used with an object: a noun, phrase, or pronoun that refers to the person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb. In the following sentences, admire, maintain, face, and love is transitive verbs:
For example:
1. I admire your courage.
2. We need to maintain product quality.
3. I couldn’t face him today.
4. She loves animals.
Note: Some transitive verbs can be used with a direct object and an indirect object
An intransitive verb does not have an object. In the following sentences, cry, work, laugh, and talk are intransitive verbs.
For example:
1. The baby was crying.
2. I work for a large firm in Paris.
3. They laughed uncontrollably.
4. We talked for hours.
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| 28 | Notes | Whoever & Whomever | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whoever is a subjective pronoun. It servers as a subject of a verb.
Examples:-
(i) Whoever is hungry can have the leftover pizza. (whoever is the subject of the verb is, like "He is hungry.")
(ii) Give the package to whoever comes for it. (whoever is the subject of the verb comes, like "He comes for it.")
(iii) I am happy with whoever wins. (whoever is the subject of the verb wins, like "He wins.")
Whoever is also correct as a subject complement, with linking verbs such as is, are, and will be.
Examples:-
(i) whoever it did not leave her name.
(ii) whoever they are, I like their confidence.
Whomever is an objective pronoun. It servers as an object of a verb or a preposition.
Examples:-
Please invite whomever you choose. (Whomever is the object of the verb choose, like "You choose him.")
Whomever Kate marries is none of our business. (whomever is the object of the verb marries, like "Kate marries him.")
I am eager to work with whomever Dale selects as my partner. (whomever is the object of the verb selects, like "Dale selects her.")
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| 29 | Notes | General rule for the usage of the phrase | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | "One of the PLURAL NOUN that/who etc. SINGULAR/PLURAL VERB"
So, the noun following the phrase "one of the" is always a plural noun
The RELATIVE PRONOUN (WHO/THAT/WHICH) is absolutely crucial here:
(1) When the relative pronoun "who/that" is not used - i.e. "one of the NOUNs" is actually the SUBJECT of the verb - then we use a singular verb.
Examples:-
There are many birds on the tree. One of the birds is red. ("One of the birds" is used as the subject)
(2) When the relative pronoun "who/that" is used - i.e. "one of the NOUNs" is not actually the SUBJECT of the verb - then we use a plural verb.
Examples:-
(i) That is one of the birds that fly over my house at night. ("that" acts as the subject for the verb "fly" and "that" in this sentence refers to birds (plural noun) and thus, "fly" (plural verb) is used.
(ii) She is one of the mothers who are really working hard to make both ends meet. ("who" acts as the subject for the verb "are" and "who" in this sentence refers to mothers (plural noun) and thus, "are" (plural verb) is used.
(3) If the sentence follows the form, "The only one of the PLURAL NOUN WHO/THAT, etc." a SINGULAR verb is required.
Examples:-
Rina is the only one of the girls who has ever been to India. (Singular verb)
This is the only one of the novels which is interesting. (Singular verb)
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| 30 | Notes | Regular and Irregular Verbs | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Verbs are those words that express the action or state of the subject in a sentence. There are certain forms which a verb can take, called as ‘principal parts of verbs, these are infinitive, third person present, simple past, past participle, and present participle. If you take a glance at these forms, you’ll notice that there are some verbs whose simple past and past participle have a set or fixed ending which are called Regular Verbs.
Conversely, there are certain verbs that either change their forms completely or remain the same, these are known as Irregular Verbs.
Regular verbs
Regular verbs are defined as having both their past simple tense and past participle forms constructed by adding the suffixes “-d” or “-ed” to the end of the word. For most regular verbs, this is the only change to the word’s spelling.
For example:
1. I called you but you didn't answer.
2. She booked us a table at the restaurant.
Irregular verbs
Irregular verbs are those verbs that do not have a specific formula to indicate them in their past simple and past participle.
For example:
1. We felt tired after our long walk. (past tense of feel)
2. Have you thought about buying a new car? (past participle of think)
3. This is the best report you have ever written. (past participle of write)
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| 31 | Notes | Use of relative pronouns - who, whom, which and that | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | (1) "Who" and "whom" are mainly used for people. However, these pronouns can also be used to refer to animals that are mentioned by name and domesticated by people (i.e. Domestic Animals).
Examples:-
The witnesses whom I interviewed gave conflicting evidence. (Used for people)
The people who just boarded the plane are in a rock band. (Used for people)
The vacuum scared our dog Rocky, who was sleeping on the rug. (Used for a pet)
(2) "Which" is used for animals in general or things (i.e. Non - domestic Animals and Non - Living things).
Examples:-
(i) Vinita visited the park with a dog, which likes to chase squirrels. (Used for an animal)
(ii) The bomb, which killed 15people, was the worst of a series of terrorist outrages. (Used for Non - living things)
(3) "That" can be used for people, animals, or things (i.e. No restrictions)
Examples:-
(i) The car that Jasprit bought runs on electricity and gas. (Used for a thing)
(ii) The musician that won the award is Indian. (Used for person)
(iii) The dog that is chasing the squirrels belongs to Brijesh. (Used for an animal)
NOTE: All, any, the only, the same, none, much, no, the little, the few, something, anything, nothing, and superlative degrees are all followed by "that" only. They cannot be followed by "who" or "which"
Examples:-
This is the same book which you were reading. (Incorrect)
This is the same book that you were reading. (Correct)
This is the same person that I want to marry.
He spent up the little amount which he had. (Incorrect)
He spent up the little amount that he had. (Correct)
This is the best that I can do for you.
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| 32 | Notes | Difference Between Who and Whom? | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Who and whom are both relative pronouns. They function to connect a noun or another pronoun to a phrase or clause with more information. Both words can also work as interrogative pronouns in questions. However, even though they are both the same kind of pronouns, they are not interchangeable. The difference between these words is:
“Who” and is a subjective pronoun. “Whom” is an objective pronoun. That simply means that “who” is always subject to a verb, and that “whom” is always working as an object in a sentence. We’ve explained what subjects and objects in a sentence are.
“Who,” the subjective pronoun, is the doer of an action.
For example, “That’s the girl who scored the goal.”
It is the subject of “scored” because the girl was doing the scoring.
Then, “whom,” as the objective pronoun, receives the action.
For example, “Whom do you like best?”
It is the object of “like”.
Note: You can only use who as the subject of a sentence; in other words, the person who performs the action. Whom is the object of a sentence. They receive the action performed by the subject.
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| 33 | Notes | Formation of Adjectives | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Many adjectives do not have prefixes or suffixes.
e.g: good, tall, fat, wide, simple, gaunt.
However, adjectives may be formed by adding prefixes
(before a word) or suffixes (after a word).
e.g: illegal, insensitive, rusty, childish, merciless, enjoyable.
Usually, adjectives are formed by adding suffixes to nouns.
e.g: baggy, hairy, hairless, burdensome, quarrelsome, beautiful.
Sometimes, adjectives may be formed by adding suffixes to verbs.
e.g: attractive, washable, expectant, complimentary, boring, disappointed.
When a negative prefix such as un, il, dis, in, im or ir is added to an adjective, it creates an opposite or negative meaning.
e.g: unnatural, illogical, dishonest, infamous, immoral, irreverent.
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| 34 | Notes | Positions of Pronouns in Sentences | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | A pronoun can be the subject of a verb:
e.g: I can’t catch the mouse. It moves too quickly.
A pronoun can be the object of a verb:
e.g: The flowers look beautiful. Sally arranged them just now.
A pronoun can be the object of a preposition:
e.g: I’m going to buy some snacks. Make sure you keep a place for me.
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| 35 | Notes | INDEFINITE PRONOUNS | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Some indefinite pronouns refer to people,
e.g. someone, anyone, everybody, no one, everyone, nobody.
Some indefinite pronouns refer to things,
e.g. something, anything, everything, nothing.
Examples:
1. Someone is at the door.
2. Where is everyone?
3. Has anyone seen the television remote control?
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| 36 | Notes | Comparison between two qualities of an object. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whenever two qualities of an object are compared, we always use the word “more”. We don’t use comparative degree in that case.
Examples:-
- This pen is redder than white. [Incorrect]
- This book is heavier than larger. [Incorrect]
- This shirt is more white than red. [Correct]
- This umbrella is more beautiful than strong. [Correct]
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| 37 | Notes | Combination of (Number +Unit) in Noun + Adjective | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | If there is a combination of “Number Unit Noun” or, “Number Unit Adjective” in a sentence, we always use the singular form of the Unit.
Examples:-
(i) He saw a ten-inch snake. [Unit – Singular]
(ii) She gave me two five hundred rupee notes. [Unit – Singular]
NOTE: If there is a combination of “Number Unit” in a sentence, a singular Unit will be used if the sentence is not self-explanatory, otherwise a plural Unit will be used if the sentence is self-explanatory.
Examples:-
(i) He had five dozen. [Singular Unit] (Not self-explanatory, hence we have used a singular noun)
(ii) I have five rupees. [Plural Unit] (Explanatory; hence we have used a plural noun)
NOTE: In a sentence, if there is more than one Unit, Units are always arranged in ascending order.
Examples:- Thousands of lakhs of students took the test. [Units arranged in ascending order]
(Students take a test and teachers give a test. )
NOTE: Use of words like “handful, glassful, and fistful” as measuring units: Such units are called arbitrary units
Singular Plural
Handful Handfuls
Glassful Glassfuls
Fistful Fistfuls
Spoonful Spoonfuls
Mouthful Mouthfuls
Cupful Cupfuls
Examples:-
(i) He pulled out a handful of coins from his pocket. [Unit – Singular]
(ii) I use two handfuls of pasta per person. [Unit – Plural]
(iii) Drink a glassful of water with this medicine. [Unit – Singular]
(iv) She drank two whole glassfuls of orange juice. [Unit – Plural]
(v) He has a fistful of acting awards. [Unit – Singular]
(vi) All of a sudden we just started having fistfuls of money. [Unit – Plural]
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| 38 | Notes | Difference between “Elder” and “Older”: | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, “elder” is used for someone who is in our family.“older” is used for someone who is not in the family.
Examples:-
- A friend of mine in my company is elder than me. [Incorrect]
- A friend of mine in my company is older than me. [Correct]
- The elder son of King John, Henry was nine when his father died. [Correct]
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| 39 | Notes | Difference between “Farther” and “Further.” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, “farther” is used for a more distant object . “further” is used for extra or additional distance.
Examples:-
- Villagers saw a temple on the farther side of the river.
- Suman has appealed in the high court for further judgment.
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| 40 | Notes | Difference between “Later” and “Latter.” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use later when referring to time while we use latter when referring to the second of two persons or things mentioned previously.
Examples:-
- Bran said that he would call me later.
There are two kinds of worries: those you can do something about and those you can’t.
- Don’t spend any time on the latter.
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| 41 | Notes | Expressions | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Expressions of time, money, speed, weight, height, and distance, when used or covered in one way, usually take a Singular verb. However, when these expressions are used or covered in various ways, a Plural verb is used.
(i)Ten miles needs to be covered completely on foot. [Singular verb] (the complete distance (i.e. ten miles) has to be covered by just one means (i.e. on foot), thus a singular verb “needs” is used.)
(ii)Ten miles need to be covered partly by car and rest on foot. [Plural verb] (the complete distance (i.e. ten miles) has to be covered by two means (i.e. by car and on foot), thus a plural verb “need” is used.)
(iii) Five thousand rupees is his salary. [Singular verb]
(iv) Five thousand rupees were spent on food and entertainment. [Plural verb]
(v) Six weeks is not long enough. [Singular verb]
(vi) Five kilograms is his weight.
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| 42 | Notes | Difference between “Nearest” and “Next.” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, “Nearest” is used for space or distance .“Next” is used for in order or position.
Examples:-
- Delhi railway station is nearest to my house.
- Mr. Gupta lives in the next house.
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| 43 | Notes | Difference between “Less” and “Fewer” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, “Less ” is used to denote quantity and is used as Singular Uncountable Noun .“Fewer” is used to denote the number and is used as Plural Countable Noun.
Examples:-
- He has less money than I . [Correct]
- He has fewer money than I . [Incorrect]
Money is an Uncountable noun. Notes and coins are countable nouns.
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| 44 | Notes | Certain cases of comparisons | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Certain cases of comparisons:
Examples:-
(i) Gold is more precious than all metals. [Incorrect]
(ii) Gold is more precious than any other metal. [Correct]
Look at the above two examples carefully; in the first sentence, “Gold” is itself a metal and is being compared with all metals which include even gold as a metal. Thus, at a point in time, the meaning of the sentence becomes – “Gold is more precious than gold”, which makes the sentence wrong. However, in the second case, gold is compared with any other metals, which means gold is precious than any metal other than gold. This makes the statement meaningful and logical.
(iii) Diamond is more precious than all metals. [Correct]
The above sentence is correct as Diamond being a non-metal is compared to all metals.
(iv) Kalidasa was more famous than all English poets. [Correct]
(Kalidasa is compared with all English poets, which is correct as Kalidasa was not an English poet.)
(v) Kalidasa was more famous than all poets. [Incorrect]
(Kalidasa is compared with all poets, which include even Kalidasa. This makes the sentence wrong or meaningless.)
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| 45 | Notes | Difference between “Latest” and “Last”. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, “Latest” is used word opposite to Earliest, it denotes time. “Last” is the word opposite to first and it denotes order or position.
Examples:-
- She is the last girl to stay in the office.
- What is the latest news today?
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| 46 | Notes | Difference between “Less” and “Lesser” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, “Less” is used to denote something smaller in size, measurement, duration, number, etc.“Lesser” is used to denoting something not so great as the other one.
Examples:-
- Maths is less difficult than English.
- She agreed to plead guilty to a lesser charge.
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| 47 | Notes | Preposition of Time: "Since" & "For" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The words “for” and “since” are used in sentences where the speaker wants to talk about something that started in the past and continues into the present.
The preposition “for” is used to talk about an amount of time or space. The amount of time could be seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, or even years. The amount of time does not need to be exact.
For is used for “duration”
Since is used to denote “Point of start”
The preposition “since” is used to refer to a point in time. “Since” can refer to a point after a specific time or event in the past or, it can refer to a particular point beginning sometime in the past and continuing until the present time. The particular point in time could be anything – last Tuesday, 2008, or midnight.
Examples:-
(i) He has been here for 6 months and still cannot speak a word of German. [for a period of time]
(ii) I've only known her since the beginning of last week. [since a particular point in time]
(iii) He has been learning English since childhood.
NOTE: “for” is used to specify a period of time while “since” is used to specify a particular point in time.
NOTE: Only the Perfect Tense or Perfect Continuous Tense is used before “since” and “for” when they denote time.
Examples:-
(i) It has been raining since 8 a.m. [Present Perfect Continuous Tense]
(ii) I have had this watch since 1965. [Present Perfect Tense]
NOTE: “since” is always followed by “Simple Past” tense.
Examples:-
(i) I had been waiting for him since the time I had completed my graduation. [Incorrect]
(ii) I had been waiting for him since the time I completed my graduation. [Correct]
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| 48 | Notes | Action occurred in Past perfect tense & Simple past tense | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | When two actions occurred in past, the action which happened earlier is denoted by using Past Perfect Tense, and the action which happened later is denoted by using Simple Past Tense.
Examples:-
He had finished the work after we had met him. [Incorrect]
He finished the work after we had met him. [Correct]
The patient died before the doctor arrived. [Incorrect]
The patient had died before the doctor arrived. [Correct]
I finished the book after I had returned from college.
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| 49 | Notes | Uses of Possessive Adjective in Gerund | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use a Possessive Adjective (my, our, his, her, their, your) before a Gerund.
Examples:-
I hope you don’t mind me borrowing your car. [Incorrect]
I hope you don’t mind my borrowing your car. [Correct]
In the above examples, notice that the only difference is ‘me’ versus ‘my’. “My” is the possessive form of the pronoun ‘I’ or ‘me’. For example, “my book” and “my idea” are possessives. The book and the idea belong to me.
“Me” is the objective case of the pronoun.
Thus, the second example is correct—the sentence that uses the possessive “my” because we use a possessive before a Gerund and “borrowing” is a gerund. Here “borrowing” plays the role of a noun.
“Gerund” as a noun -------- When V1 ING is used as a noun.
I know his reading every night has helped him pass the test. [Possessive and Gerund – the focus is on reading]
I hope you don’t mind my staying with you next week. [Possessive and Gerund – the focus is on staying]
My father doesn't like my going outside with Ram.
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| 50 | Notes | Different forms of the verb “Lie” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | S. No. V1 V2 V3
1. Lie Lied Lied
2. Lay Laid Laid
3. Lie Lay Lain
(1) We use this “Lie” to say or write something that is not true in order to deceive someone.
(2) We use “Lay” to put something in especially a flat or horizontal position, usually carefully or for a particular purpose.
(3) We use this “Lie” to be in or move into a horizontal position on a surface.
Examples:-
(1) I suspect he lies about his age. [V1]
She lied to her parents about her new car. [V2]
He has never lied to me before, so I have no reason to doubt his word. [V3]
(2)He lays the old man on the table. [V1]
She laid the baby on the bed. [V2]
He has laid his bag on the ground. [V3]
(3) He lies awake at night, worrying. [V1]
A pen lay on the desk. [V2]
Women have lain down their lives throughout history. [V3]
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| 51 | Notes | Use of normal Places | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whenever we use normal places like school, college, church, bed, table, hospital, market, prison, jail, court, temple, mosque, university, etc. for the primary purpose (for which they are being made), the article “The” is not used before them. But when these places are used for secondary purposes, the article “The” is used before them.
Examples:-
(i) Children go to school every day. [Primary purpose]
(ii) He goes to the temple. [Primary purpose]
(iii) His home is just beside the temple. [Secondary purpose]
We go to church on Fridays. [Correct]
We go to the church on Fridays. [Incorrect]
The politician was sent to jail. [Correct]
The politician was sent to jail.[Incorrect]
NOTE: It is important to understand the difference between primary purpose and secondary purpose. The primary purpose refers to work for which they are being made while secondary purpose refers to any work other than for which are they are being made.
Examples:-
He goes to temple. [It means he goes there to worship]
He goes to the temple. [It means he goes there to do any work other than worship]
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| 52 | Notes | Adverbs "No sooner", "Hardly", Scarcely" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whenever adverbs like “No sooner”, “Hardly”, “Scarcely”, etc. are used at the beginning of a sentence, they are always followed by a helping verb.
Examples:-
Hardly had I begun to speak when I was interrupted.
Scarcely had we started our meal when the phone rang.
No sooner had I arrived than they all started to argue.
NOTE: Note that adverbs “hardly, scarcely, and barely” are always followed by “when”, while “No sooner” is followed by “than”.
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| 53 | Notes | Use of preposition with the word “Die” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use either the preposition “of” or “from” with the word “Die”.
We use “Die of” whenever it is talked about a disease.
We use “Die from” whenever it is talked about the reason.
Examples:-
- She died from overwork. [Reason]
- He died of cancer. [Disease]
- He died of tuberculosis. [Disease]
- Trees are dying from acid rain. [Reason]
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| 54 | Notes | Position of Adverbs | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We place an adverb generally at three different positions in a sentence:
(a)Starting of Sentence
(b)Between the helping verb and the main verb
(c)At the end
NOTE: An adverb can never be placed between the main verb and object.
Examples:-
- He comes often to my house. [Incorrect]
- He often comes to my house. [Correct]
In the first sentence, “comes” is the main verb, and “often” is an adverb. So we cannot place adverb between the main verb and the object.
The second sentence is the correct order of the sentence structure.
- He tells always the truth. [Incorrect]
- He always tells the truth. [Correct]
In the above example, “always” is an adverb, and “tells” is the main verb. So “always” should be placed before the main verb.
- Suddenly the phone rang. [Correct]
- He was probably late for the interview. [Correct]
- They ate dinner quietly. [Correct]
There are few exceptions to this rule. Adverbs like too, even, only can be placed anywhere in a sentence.
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| 55 | Notes | Subjects Connection | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whenever the two subjects are connected by “as well as, together with, along with, and not, in addition to, like, unlike, with, rather than, except, no less than, nothing but, more than one”, the verb agrees with the first subject.
Examples:-
(i) John, as well as Mary, wants to drop the course. [Singular verb]
(ii) Ram, as well as his friends, keeps asking me many questions. [Singular verb]
(iii) The publisher, as well as the writers, has come. [Singular verb]
The club members, along with his owner, was arrested. [Incorrect]
The club members, along with his owner, were arrested. [Correct]
He, and not his friends, are found guilty. [Incorrect]
He, and not his friends, is found guilty. [correct]
In the given examples, the Subject prior to “as well as” is Singular, so a singular verb “wants” is used. Similarly, in the second case, “Ram” is a singular subject that requires a singular verb “keeps”.
NOTE: We follow the same rule (i.e. the verb agrees with the first Subject) when two subjects are connected by “governed by”, “accompanied by”, “but”, “besides”, “led by”, “run by”, etc.
Examples:-
California, along with Florida, is among the most popular US tourist destinations.
The teachers, along with the Principal, are entering the class. [Subject is plural in this case]
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| 56 | Notes | Reflexive pronoun exceptional words | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | There are certain words that are never followed by Reflexive pronouns: hide, keep, stop, turn, shave, bathe, etc.
Examples:-
He hid himself in the cave and thus saved his life. [Incorrect]
He hid in the cave and thus saved his life. [Correct]
In the given examples, we cannot use the word “himself” as the word “hid” is not followed by a reflexive pronoun.
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| 57 | Notes | Difference between Noun and Verb for similar sounding words | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Difference between Noun and Verb for similar sounding words, like
Advice - Noun
Advise - Verb
Practice - Noun
Practice - Verb
Belief - Noun
Believe - Verb
Examples:-
I advise you to practice a lot since practice makes a man perfect.
I'm quite good at tennis but I need to practice my serve.
Practice makes a man perfect
He gave me a piece of advice
It is my belief that my students are very talented.
I believe my students.
NOTE: To locate nouns in the sentence, we generally try to find the answer of ‘what’, ‘who’, or ‘whom’.
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| 58 | Notes | Uses of who & whom | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | “Who” is used as a subjective pronoun, and “Whom” is used as an objective pronoun.
That simply means that “who” is always as a subject to a verb, and that “whom” is always working as an object in a sentence. As simple and important as that distinction is, many people have difficulty deciding on the proper usage of “who” and “whom” in sentences.
To clear this doubt, simply substitute the personal pronoun “he/him” or “she/her” for “who/whom.” If he or she would be the correct form, the proper choice is “who”. If “him” or “her” would be correct, use “whom.”
Examples:-
(i) Mrs. Dixit consulted an astrologer whom she met in Sonpur. [She met him in Sonpur.]
(ii) Jack is the man whom I went fishing with last spring. [I went fishing with him.]
(iii) Jyoti is the girl who got the job. [She got the job.]
(iv) Whom can we turn to in a time of crisis? [Can we turn to her?]
The delegates differed as to who they thought might win. [Not “whom”. Here the entire clause is the object of the preposition. Substitution is particularly helpful in cases such as this. They thought he might win.]
Some more examples:-
(i) She is one of the professors who I think is a mathematician.
(ii) He is the man whom everyone admires.
(iii) She met the people who they say are helping all aspirants.
(iv) They hired the man whom we interviewed last week.
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| 59 | Notes | Words which do not use before Possessive case | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Certain words like “separation, excuse, mention, favor, pardon, leave, report, sight, etc.” do not take the Possessive case before them.
Examples:-
Your separation pains me a lot and I become sad. [Incorrect]
Separation from you pains me a lot and I become sad. [Correct]
Consider the above two examples; in the first case, we cannot use “your” with “separation” as “your” is a Possessive Adjective.
However, the first sentence can be rewritten to make it grammatically feasible without altering its meaning, as can be seen in the second sentence.
I want your favor, will you please help me? [Incorrect]
I want a favor from you, will you please help me? [Correct]
The first sentence is grammatically incorrect as we cannot use “your favor”. However, it can be written as “favor from you”, as in the second sentence.
His mention in the story received great applause from the audience. [Incorrect]
Mention of him in the story received great applause from the audience. [Correct]
The first sentence is grammatically incorrect as we cannot use “His mention” as “his” is also a Possessive Adjective. However, the first sentence can be rewritten to make it grammatically correct without altering its meaning, as can be seen in the second sentence.
At his sight, the robbers fled. [Incorrect]
At the sight of him, the robbers fled. [Correct]
NOTE: Possessive Case: your, his, her, my, their, our, its, etc.
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| 60 | Notes | Use of "each other" & "one another" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use “each other” and “one another” to show that each person in a group of two or more people does something to the others. There is very little difference between each other and one another. “Each other” is generally used for two people while “one another” is used for more than two people.
Examples:-
All citizens should love each other. [Incorrect]
All citizens should love one other. [Correct]
In the first sentence, “all citizens” refer to more than two people. So, “each other” should be replaced by “one another”, as in the case of the second sentence.
Peter and Mary helped each other. [Peter helped Mary and Mary helped Peter]
We sent one other Christmas card. [We sent them a Christmas card and they sent us a Christmas card]
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| 61 | Notes | Difference between other and another | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Other is an adjective meaning 'different' or 'the second of two items'. Other can be used with singular or plural nouns. Other can also be a pronoun to refer to things or people. The plural form is others.
However, When we use ‘an’ before ‘other’, we write it as one word: another. It means 'additional' or 'one more. Another can be used before a plural noun when that noun is preceded by a number, or words/phrases such as a couple of, few, etc.
Examples:-
(i) Some children learn quickly but other children need more time.
(ii) Have you got any other questions?
(iii) Only half of the guests have arrived. Where are the others? [Plural]
(iv) This cake is delicious. Could I have another slice, please?
(v) The investigation will take another two weeks/couple of weeks. [Plural]
(vi) This place isn’t great. Is there another place we could go to? [Another can also mean ‘an alternative’ or ‘different’]
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| 62 | Notes | Use of "seldom or never" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The word “Seldom” is an Adverb and when a sentence begins with “seldom”, the law of inversion will be followed.
Examples:-
(i) Seldom or never he comes to my house. [Incorrect]
(ii) Seldom or ever he comes to my house. [Incorrect]
(iii) Seldom, if ever does he come to my house. [Correct]
(iv) Seldom or never does he come to my house. [Correct]
NOTE: We can either use “Seldom or never” or “Seldom, if ever”, but we cannot use “Seldom or ever”.
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| 63 | Notes | Use of "little or nothing" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The phrase “Little or nothing” means “Hardly anything”. In this case, also, we can either use “Little or nothing” or “Little, if everything”, but we cannot use “Little or everything”.
Examples:-
I can find little or nothing on this table. [Correct]
I can find little if anything on this table [Correct]
I can find little if nothing on this table. [Incorrect]
I can find little or anything on this table. [Incorrect]
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| 64 | Notes | Use Article "the" before superlative degree "very" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whenever we use “very” with a Superlative degree, the article “the” is always used before “very” i.e. “the very superlative”.
“Very” modifies present participle used as an adjective, adverb, and adjective in the positive degree.
Eg. It is a very interesting novel.
However, when we use “much” with a Superlative degree, article “the” is used before the superlative i.e. “much the superlative”.
“Much” is used with a comparative degree and past participle.
Eg. He is much interested.
He is much smarter.
Examples:-
He is the much best student of my class. [Incorrect]
He is very the best student of my class. [Incorrect]
He is the very best student of my class. [Correct]{ It means really}
He is much the best student of my class. [Correct]{It means decidedly}
He is much smarter than all other students. [Correct]
I was very exhausted after the match. [Correct]
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| 65 | Notes | Use of "Enough" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | “Enough” plays the role of both Adverb and Adjective. When it is used as an Adverb, it qualifies as an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a word group. When it is used as an Adjective, it qualifies as a noun or a pronoun. When “enough” plays the role of an Adjective, “enough” is placed before the noun or pronoun i.e. “enough noun”. When “enough” plays the role of an Adverb, “enough” is placed after the adjective i.e. “adjective enough”.
Examples:-
(i) He has enough sugar. [Used as an Adjective]
(ii) She is smart enough. [Used as an Adverb]
(iii) On neither of those trips was there enough sun to get any decent photographs. [Used as an Adjective]
(iv) Test reports indicate that it develops enough power for the job and is flexible. [Used as an Adjective]
(v) You are not big enough for basketball. [Used as an Adverb]
(vi) A landing between the ground and first floors is ample enough to be used as a study. [Used as an Adverb]
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| 66 | Notes | Use of Adverb "as" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | “as” can be used as an adverb with these given words – “treat, define, regard, describe, respect, depict, portray, view, know, etc.”
However, “as” cannot be used as an adverb with these two words – “elect, name, think, consider, call, make, choose, appoint, etc.”
Examples:-
(i) Biology is defined as the science of living beings.
(ii) He is regarded as God in India.
(iii) She described Gary as shy.
(iv) His latest film is described as a 'romantic comedy.
(v) She was elected Chair of the Board of Governors.
(vi) She is treated as a child.
(vii) He has just been appointed director of the publishing division.
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| 67 | Notes | Use of Conjunction "although" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | “Although”, meaning “in spite of something”, is a subordinating conjunction. This means that the clause which it introduces is a subordinate clause, which needs a main clause to make it complete. Sometimes “although” as a subordinate clause may take “yet” in the main clause. However, “although” as a subordinate clause never takes “but” in the main clause.
Yet is optional. It can or cannot be used.
Examples:-
Although she is rich, she thinks twice before spending a penny. [Correct]
Although she is rich, yet she thinks twice before spending a penny. [Correct]
Although she is rich, but she thinks twice before spending a penny. [Incorrect]
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| 68 | Notes | Words which used in Perfect Tense | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | There are certain words which are always used in Perfect Tense: “ever, never, yet, already, now, just now, until, now, always, occasionally, often, lately, recently, so far, up to now, up to the present”
Examples:-
The concert had already begun by the time we arrived. [Correct]
I went to Paris last summer. Have you ever been there? [Correct]
I have not spoken to her yet. [Correct]
He has gone just now. [Correct]
He went there already. [Incorrect]
He had gone there already. [Correct]
Aman completed his work up to now. [Incorrect]
Aman has not completed his work up to now. [Correct]
The train already left. [Incorrect]
The train has already left. [Correct]
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| 69 | Notes | Subject - Verb agreement with Collective Nouns | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | When a collective noun denotes that the whole group is working together on the same task, we use a singular verb.
Examples:-
(i) The audience is watching the movie. [every audience is watching together]
(ii) The army is marching towards the Himalayas. [whole army (personnel) is moving together]
(iii) The jury is taking a decision. [all the members of the jury is taking decision together]
When a collective noun denotes that the whole group is working on different tasks, we use a plural verb.
Examples:-
(i) The audience is taking the seats.
(ii) The army is changing their dresses.
(iii) The jury is divided in their opinion.
NOTE: Words like “police, vermin, cattle, clergy, gentry, poultry, folk, peasantry, people, infantry, cavalry, etc.” are “plural nouns” and not “collective nouns”. A plural noun always takes a plural verb. So these words always take plural verbs.
Examples:-
The police are investigating the case.
Cattle are wandering on the farm.
People want to attain all worldly pleasures.
NOTE: Sometimes the word “people” is used in the meaning of “a country” instead of “persons”, in that case, we use a singular verb. Peoples means countries or people belonging to different nationalities.
“Peoples” in that case is correct.
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| 70 | Notes | Use of phrase "as....as" and "so....as" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The use of phrases “as… as” and “so… as”:
These blanks are filled up with adjectives of a positive degree.
Examples:-
If we pass on the information, he's as good as dead.
I'm not so desperate as to agree to that.
NOTE: “as… as” can be used to denote both positive and negative sentences while “so… as” can only be used only to denote negative sentences.
Examples:-
He is as good as Ram. [Correct]
He is not as good as Ram. [Correct]
He is not so good as Ram. [Correct]
He is so good as Ram. [Incorrect]
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| 71 | Notes | In depicting comparison "times" never followed by Comparative degree | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence depicting comparison, whenever the word “times” comes up, it is never followed by a comparative degree.
Examples:-
(i) This book is three times larger than that book. [Incorrect]
The word “times” and the comparative degree “larger” cannot be used together. The sentence should be rewritten either as a sentence
(ii) This book is three times heavier than that book. [Incorrect]
(iii) It is twice cheaper than that. [Correct]{Times is not written, hence it is correct}
(iv) This book is three times as large as that book. [Correct]
To make it grammatically correct.
(v) It is twice costlier than that. [Correct]
There is no use of the word “times” and thus we can use the comparative degree to bring up the comparisons.
(vi) It is two times as costly as that. [Correct]
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| 72 | Notes | In a general case of infinitive. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In the general case of the infinitive, we always use the form “To V1”. But in certain special cases, we use the form “To V1 ing”. There are certain words that always follow the “To V1 ing” form:-
(1)be used to V1 ing
(2)accustomed to V1 ing
(3)addicted to V1 ing
(4)with a view to V1 ing
(5)look forward to V1 ing
(6)given to V1 ing
(7)prone to V1 ing
(8)devoted to V1 ing
(9)in addition to V1 ing
(10)confess to
(11)disposed to
(12)come to
Examples:-
She was given to staying in bed till lunchtime.
These measures have been taken with a view to increasing the company's profits.
I look forward to hearing from you.
He is rather prone to making tactless remarks.
She has devoted herself to getting justice for her son.
I am not accustomed to being treated like this.
NOTE: When we use the form “V1 ing” as a noun, it is called Gerund.
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| 73 | Notes | Determination of tense based on words like “ago” and “before” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We generally use Simple Past Tense when the word “ago” is mentioned in the sentence. In the case of “before”, we use Past Perfect Tense.
Examples:-
- He had gone two seconds ago. [Incorrect]
He went two seconds ago. [Correct]
- She had submitted the work five hours ago. [Incorrect]
She submitted the work five hours ago. [Correct]
- The patient died before the doctor came. [Incorrect]
The patient had died before the doctor came. [Correct]
In the last sentence, two actions have happened in the past, so for the earlier action we use “had V3” and for the latter action, we use “V2”.
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| 74 | Notes | Use of preposition with the word “Angry.” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | (1)We use the preposition “with” with “angry” whenever we refer to a person or living thing for the purpose.
Examples:-
I got really angry with her.
I am angry with Shyam because he did not go to the class.
(2)We use the preposition “at” with “angry” whenever we refer to something other than the person or living thing.
Examples:-
The local residents were angry at the lack of parking spaces.
They are angry at the way they have been treated.
NOTE: We follow the same rule with the word“Annoy”.
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| 75 | Notes | Use of the prepositions “in”, “Inside” and “into.” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | (1) The preposition “inside” implies“movement”. Whenever we move from outside to inside, we use “inside”.
Examples:-
I came inside the class.
He tried to get inside her mind.
NOTE: “Inside out” is completely different from “In” and “Inside”. It means if something is inside out, it has the usual inside part on the outside and the usual outside part on the inside.
There is one more meaning of “Inside out” which is “completely”
Examples:-
I know my husband inside out. [completely]
She had her sweater on inside out.
(2) The preposition “in” implies “static”. Whenever something referred is already inside, we use “in”.
Examples:-
I am in the class.
The chlorine in the pool makes my eyes sore.
(3) The preposition “into” implies “coming toward something”. Whenever we move to a position in or inside something, we use “into”. It is also used to show a change in state.
Examples:-
Come into the house.
He threw the letter into the fire.
Can you translate this passage into German?
The fruit can be made into jam.
He jumped into the well.
She wove her ideas into a story.
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| 76 | Notes | Use of the phrase “It is time” , “It is high time” or “It is about time”: | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | With the phrases like “It is time” and “It is high time”, we follow either of the two conditions:
(1) The phrase should be followed by “to V1” if there is no Subject attached to it.
Examples:-
It is time to work hard.
It is time to ask for a raise.
(2) If the phrase is directly followed by a Subject, we use the verb form “V2” (past tense) after the subject.
Examples:-
It is time he worked hard. [followed by the subject “he”]
Gosh! It’s almost midnight. It is time we went home. [followed by the subject “we”]
NOTE: We use the expression “it’s time subject past verb form” to refer to the present moment.
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| 77 | Notes | “Quite” and “all” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Words like “Quite” and “all” are never used together in a sentence.
Examples:-
- He is quite all well. [Incorrect]
He is quite well. [Correct]
- He has done quite all the work. [Incorrect]
He has done all the work. [Correct]
NOTE: Do not get confused with similar-sounding words like “Quiet” and “Quite”.Quiet is a Noun that means the state of being silent.
Quite is an Adverb that means completely.
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| 78 | Notes | Use of the prepositions “with” and “by”. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | (1) We use “with” when we refer to non-living things.
Examples:-
We write with a pen. [Pen being a non-living thing]
She wiped her lipstick off with a tissue. [Tissue being a non-living thing]
He hit the dog with a stick. [Stick being a non-living thing]
(2) We use “by” when we refer to living things.
Examples:-
The motorcycle was driven by a tiny bald man.
The book was translated by a well-known author.
Any painting by Van Gogh is worth a fortune.
NOTE: Whenever we talk about “watch”, we use “by”.
What is the time by your watch? [ In your watch is incorrect]
Examples:-
She had promised to be back by five o'clock. [referring time]
I have got to be home by seven. [referring time].
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| 79 | Notes | Use of little, the little and a little. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use these quantifiers with uncountable nouns according to their following meanings:
(1) Little: Hardly any
(2) A little: Some but not much
(3) The little: All that is available
Examples:-
- I cannot make tea since there is little milk. [Hardly any milk]
- A little knowledge is dangerous. [ Some but not much]
- He utilized the little water that was available. [ All that is available]
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| 80 | Notes | Use of few, a few and the few | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use these quantifiers with countable nouns according to their following meanings:
(1)Few: Hardly any
(2)A few: Some but not many (It has a positive meaning)
(3)The few: All that are available
Examples:-
- Few members attended the meeting. [Hardly any member attended the meeting.]
- There were a few members present. [Some members were present.]
- He lost the few friends he had. [All those he had]
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| 81 | Notes | Use of some and any. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The general rule is that “any” is used for questions and negative sentences while “some” is used for positive sentences.
Both may be used with countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:-
- Do we need any rice?
- No, we don’t need any rice.
- We have some rice in the cupboard.
- Would you like some water?
- May I have some more chocolate?
But in some cases “Some” is used with interrogative sentences
When we know that the answer will be yes, we can use “some”.
Eg. Do you have some water???
It is correct because we know already that the answer will be yes.
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| 82 | Notes | Objective Case of the pronoun comes after the Preposition. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE
CASE CASE
I me
We us
You you
They them
He him
She her
It it
Examples:-
- None but he is going to the party. [Incorrect]
None but him is going to the party. [Correct]
- All except he liked the performance.[Incorrect]
All except him liked the performance. [Correct]
In the first sentence, “but” plays the role of a preposition, so it must be followed by a pronoun or objective case. Similarly, “except” in the third sentence is a preposition that should be followed by the pronoun of objective case.
NOTE: “But” plays the role of both “Conjunction” and “Preposition”.
A verb is also followed by the pronoun of Objective case.
Examples:-
- Let him do that work. [“Let” acts as a verb here]
- They agreed to let us live there rent-free. [“Let” acts as a verb here]
Some more examples:-
- Ram as well as he is going to the party.[Correct]
- There is a good friendship between you and him. [Correct]
It is to be noted that in the first sentence, “as well as” is not used as a preposition, so the subjective case “he” is correctly used. In the second sentence, “between” is a preposition so an objective case is used after it.
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| 83 | Notes | Use of Apostrophe (‘s) | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Apostrophe (‘s) is not used with non-living things.
Examples:-
- Table’s legs. [Incorrect]
- Door’s bolt. [Incorrect]
- Pen’s ink. [Incorrect]
- Book’s page. [Incorrect]
- Chair’s legs. [Incorrect]
These can be rewritten as:
- Legs of the table. [Correct]
- A bolt of the door. [Correct]
- The ink of the pen. [Correct]
- Page of the book. [Correct]
- Legs of the chair. [Correct]
NOTE: There are some exceptions to this rule. When we talk about time, weight, distance, place, idiom, unit, personification, or heavenly body, we can use apostrophes (‘s) with them.
Examples:-
- One week’s vacation. [Correct]
- Four dollars’ worth. [Correct]
- Today's date. [Correct]
- The ship's bells. [Correct]
- The city's parks. [Correct]
- Malaysia's land. [Correct]
- Nature’s call [Correct]
- A stone’s throw[ Correct]
NOTE: The following pronouns are already possessive and do not require apostrophes: yours, ours, its, theirs, his, hers, and whose.
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| 84 | Notes | We do not use the preposition “from” with the word “start”. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Examples:-
My exams start from Monday. [Incorrect]
My exams start on Monday. [Correct]
In the first sentence, the preposition “from” gives the meaning that my exams will start on Monday, it will again start on Tuesday and it will continue doing so. Thus, an event that started once cannot start again and again. To avoid this error, we use the correct preposition “on” which implies that the event has started on Monday only.
Some more examples:-
- He will start his preparation from Monday.[Incorrect]
- He will start his preparation on Monday. [Correct]
However, we can rewrite this sentence using “from” this way:-
He will prepare for the exams from Monday.[Correct]
NOTE: “from” implies continuation.
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| 85 | Notes | Rule for using “A number of” and “The number of” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | We use the following structures with these two:
“A number of Plural Noun Plural Verb”
“The number of Plural Noun Singular Verb”
A similar rule is there for “A variety of” and “The variety of”
Examples:-
- A number of students are waiting here.
- The number of students is fifty.
- A number of tickets were sold almost immediately.
- The number of employees taking legal action over work-related diseases is increasing.
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| 86 | Notes | Whenever “male” or “female” is used before a noun, it means that we are describing its characteristics. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Examples:-
- Female watch [means the watches specified for females]
- Female doctor [means the doctors specified for females]
- Male shoes [means the shoes specified for males]
But whenever we use “man” or “woman” is used before a noun, it means that we are describing the profession or post of that noun.
Examples:-
- Man soldier [means a soldier is a man]
- Woman student [means the student is a woman]
- Woman doctor [means the doctor is a woman]
Some more examples:-
- She went to a female doctor. [Correct]
- Raj went to a female doctor to get himself treated. [Incorrect]
- Raj went to a woman doctor to get himself treated. [Correct]
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| 87 | Notes | “Between” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | “Between” is always followed by “and” and not “to”.
Examples:-
- He will distribute these sweets between 4 pm to 5 pm. [Incorrect]
- He will distribute these sweets between 4 pm and 5 pm. [Correct]
- He will distribute these sweets from 4 pm to 5 pm. [Correct].
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| 88 | Notes | Usage of “very” and “much” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | In a sentence, both these terms are used differently.
“Very” is preceded by the Adjective’s positive degree. Very emphasizes the exact identity of a particular person or thing.
“Much” means ‘large in amount or extent’. It is preceded by comparative degree and past participle.
Examples:-
- It is very interesting.
- He is much weaker than Shyam.
- The girl is very beautiful.
- The weather changes very quickly.
- I am much better now.
- They both talk too much.
- He is much interested in the project.
- Thank you so much for your help.
NOTE: We do not usually use very to modify superlative adjectives. Instead, we use much or by far. But note that very can be used to emphasize superlatives. It is also used with first, next, and last.
Examples:-
- This is the very best wine I have tasted in my life.
- This is your very last chance
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| 89 | Notes | Rules of Conditional Sentences. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Types of Conditional Sentences:
CONDITION RESULT
Simple Present will-future or (Modal infinitive)
or, shall/can/may/must V1
Simple Past would V1 or,
could/might/should V1
Past Perfect would have past participle (V3) or,
could/might/should have
past participle (V3)
Examples:-
- As soon as he comes, I will ask him this question.
- When he comes, I will ask him this question.
- Had he come earlier, I would have asked him this question.
- If he studied, he would pass the exam.
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| 90 | Notes | Imperative sentences when talks about proposals | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | When we talk about Imperative Sentences and that also when we talk about proposals, in that case, we always use “shall we” in the question tag statement.
Examples:-
(i) Let us go for a walk, don’t we? [Incorrect]
(ii) Let us go for a walk, shall we? [Correct]
(iii) Let us consider all the possibilities, shall we? [Correct]
(iv) Let us hear from Sue at our travel desk, shall we? [Correct]
(v) Let us go out to dinner, shall we? [Correct]
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| 91 | Notes | Use of preposition "in, on and at" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | ‘In’ refers to a town, city, and countries in a wider sense while [ In Delhi, in Dubai, in Saudi Arabia ]
‘At’ is used for speaking of comparatively smaller places. [ at Rohini in Delhi, at Laxminagar ]
CONCEPT:-
The preposition “in” implies Area/Volume.
The preposition “on” implies Surface.
The preposition “at” implies Point.
Based on the above concept, we use these prepositions in the following order:
Point of time < day < month < year
At < on < in < in
The above order can be understood in this way as well:
Since “point” is smaller than “surface” which in turn is smaller than “volume”, we follow the order of these prepositions in the same manner.
Examples:-
At 4 pm.
On Sunday.
In 1947.
On 15th August.
In April.
At night.
In the morning.
There's a meeting at 2.30 this afternoon.
Are you free at lunchtime?
Hair salons don't usually open on Sundays.
My birthday is on 30 May.
I started working here in 2009.
We are going to Italy in April.
Bye, see you in the morning.
NOTE: There are certain words before which we don’t use any preposition like “last Monday, coming Monday, today, tomorrow, yesterday, etc.”
Examples:-
(i) I am having dinner with Rachel tomorrow night.
(ii) I saw her yesterday afternoon.
(iii) I have a checklist of things that I must do today.
(iv) The weather forecast said it would be fine and dry this coming Monday.
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| 92 | Notes | Conjunction "Both" followed by "and" and not "as well as" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The conjunction “Both” is always followed by “and” and not “as well as”.
Examples:-
Both Ram, as well as Shyam, are good at English. [Incorrect]
Both Ram and Shyam are good at English. [Correct]
Both men, as well as women, have complained about the advertisement. [Incorrect]
Both men and women have complained about the advertisement. [Correct]
I felt both happy as well as sad at the same time. [Incorrect]
I felt both happy and sad at the same time. [Correct]
NOTE: The word “good” is always followed by the preposition “at”.
Examples:-
She is very good at geography.
Rohan is good at football.
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| 93 | Notes | Use of Conjunction "Lest" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Lest means otherwise.
The conjunction “lest” is always followed either by the verb “should” or no helping verb at all.
Examples:-
Work hard, lest you would fail. [Incorrect]
Work hard, lest you fail. [Correct]
Work hard, lest you should fail. [Correct]
He cut the remark out of the final program lest it should offend listeners. [Correct]
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| 94 | Notes | Use of "Until" and "Useless" | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | CONCEPT:-
Until - Time Oriented
Unless - Action Oriented
Examples:-
(i) Wait for me until sunset. [referring Time]
(ii) Unless the government reduces the tax, the tax-payer base will not increase. [referring Action]
(iii) I was up until three o'clock trying to get it finished! [referring Time]
(iv) Unless you call me to say you're not coming, I will see you at the theatre. [referring Action]
NOTE: There is no difference in meaning between “till” and “until” as both mean “up to (the time that)”. However, we cannot use “till” at the beginning of the sentence which is not there with the case of “until”.
Examples:-
(i) Until your next birthday, you will have to wait for a new bike.
(ii) We did not eat till past midnight.
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| 95 | Notes | Error of Parallelism | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The rule of Parallelism explains that sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in construction. These elements should be in the same grammatical form so that they are parallel.
Here are some examples of parallel elements:
(i) Words: thinking, running, etc.
(ii) Infinitives: to see, to understand, etc.
(iii) Prepositional phrases: at the time, in the house, etc.
(iv) Subordinate clauses: because I care, after they met, etc.
(v) Linking words: not only…but also…, either…or…, neither…or…, if…then…, etc.
(vi) Nouns: honesty, originality, goodness, etc.
(vii) Adjectives: charming, courteous, beautiful, etc.
Examples:-
I like singing, dancing, and to walk. [Incorrect]
I like singing, dancing, and walking. [Correct]
He asked his mother to cook, to rest and prepare the dish. [Incorrect]
He asked his mother to cook, to rest, and to prepare the dish. [Correct]
My friends never judged me by my words or what I did. [Incorrect]
My friends never judged me by my words or my actions. [Correct]
The teacher not only wants his students to keep quiet but also to do the task. [Incorrect]
The teacher wants his students not only to keep quiet but also to do the task. [Correct]
This task can be done individually, in pairs, or can be done in groups of four. [Incorrect]
This task can be done individually, in pairs, or in groups of four. [Correct]
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| 96 | Notes | Whenever the word “know” is used in a sentence | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Whenever the word “know” is used in a sentence, it is not directly followed by the infinitive “to”. We use the words like “how, when, why, where, etc.” to make the sentence grammatically feasible.
Examples:-
- I do not know what all the fuss is about.
- I do not know how to make tea; hence you should help me out.
I don't know to make tea [Incorrect]
- Do you know where the Post Office is?
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| 97 | Notes | Usage of definite ARTICLE “The” | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | (1) Series of Mountains, Bays/Gulfs, Group of islands, Canals, Aeroplanes, Ships, Planes, Religious books, Government branches, Armed forces, Names of Deserts, Political parties, Musical instrument, Rivers, Oceans, Seas, and things which are “unique” in themselves: These nouns are always preceded by a definite article “The”.
Examples:-
- The Sahara. [Name of Desert]
- The Pacific. [Name of Ocean]
- The Nile. [Name of river]
- The Coral sea. [Name of sea]
- The Himalayas. [Name of mountain range]
- The Guitar [Musical Instrument]
One important point to note is that Names of mountain ranges are preceded by the article“THE” but mountains peaks are never preceded by the article “the”
The Himalayas is correct but the Mount Everest is wrong. We only use “Everest”
(2) Names of Newspaper: These nouns are always preceded by a definite article “The”.
Examples:-
- The Times of India.
- The Hindu.
- The Indian Express.
(3) Names of Countries (Only the ones which are written in Abbreviated forms): These nouns are always preceded by a definite article “The”.
Examples:-
- The USA.
- The UK.
- The UAE.
- The USSR.
(4) Superlative Degree: The nouns of superlative degree are always preceded by a definite article “The”.
Examples:-
- The best book.
- The darkest cloud.
(5) Comparative Case: “The” is used in two cases:
CASE 1: The higher you go, the cooler it is.
- The faster you walk, the sooner you reach.
- The more sugar you put in the dish, the sweeter it is.
CASE2: He is the better of the two.
- She is the poorer of the two women.
- He is the better candidate of the two for the job.
(6) Metaphor: Sometimes “the” is used before a metaphor. In the case of a metaphor, one thing is treated as another thing.
Examples:-
- He is the Mahatma Gandhi of our class.
- Delhi is the Paris of India.
(7) For a phrase that is a combination of a common and proper noun, the’ is used.
Examples:-
- The river Nile,
- The Muslim League Party,
- The New York City,
(8) ‘The’ is mandatory before a thing which is only one of a kind in the universe.
Examples:-
- The moon is shining tonight.
- The earth is moving around the sun.
(9) For the names of the government organizations, ‘the’ is used.
Examples:-
- The Society for the protection of Child’s Rights
- The judiciary is composed of a supreme court of seven members, a court of chancery, a county court in each county, a probate court in each probate district, and justices of the peace.
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| 98 | Notes | Antecedent Rule | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | The noun or pronoun that comes just before a Relative pronoun is called an Antecedent.
Examples:-
- Ram met him who they say has helped us. [“him” in this case is an Antecedent]
- He saw her whom everyone admires. [“her” in this case is an Antecedent]
NOTE: When there is no antecedent in a sentence, we use “whoever, whomever, etc.” as relative pronouns.
Examples:-
- Ram met whoever they has helped us. [No Antecedent in the sentence]
- He saw whomever everyone admires. [No Antecedent in the sentence]
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| 99 | Notes | Rule of Question tags | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | A small question is added at the end of a statement. This is called Question Tag. A question tag for a positive statement is always negative and vice-versa.
Examples:-
- He has worked very hard on this project, hasn’t he? [Negative question tag for a positive statement]
- He has not worked hard on this project, has he? [Positive question tag for a negativestatement]
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| 100 | Notes | Some typical errors related to the above rule. | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | Examples:-
- I am working very hard for my students, amn’t I? [Incorrect]
- I am working very hard for my students, aren’t I? [Correct]
- I am getting better at this, aren't I? [Correct]
The first sentence is incorrect because there is no such word “amn’t”. It should be written as “aren’t I” which means “am I not”.
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| 101 | Notes | Use of word | Grammar | STD 1, STD 2, STD 3, STD 4, STD 5, STD 6, STD 7, STD 8, STD 9, STD 10, STD 11, STD 12 | When the word “Politics” is considered as a field or a subject, it is used as singular.
When the word “Politics” is considered as a set of political beliefs, it is used as a plural.
Examples:-
(i) Politics is a very dirty game.
“politics” is used as a whole field, so it requires a singular verb.
(ii) His politics are different from mine.
“politics” is used as political beliefs, thus it requires a plural verb.
Some more examples:-
(i) Her politics have become more liberal over the past few years.
(ii) His politics are generally considered to be right of center.
(iii) Politics is the main subject at Leicester University.
(iv) Joe is very active in left-wing politics.
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